Documentation/media/uapi/v4l/mmap.rst - linux - Git at Google

 .. Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this
 .. document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License,
 .. Version 1.1 or any later version published by the Free Software
 .. Foundation, with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts
 .. and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included at
 .. Documentation/media/uapi/fdl-appendix.rst.
 ..
 .. TODO: replace it to GFDL-1.1-or-later WITH no-invariant-sections

 .. _mmap:

 ******************************
 Streaming I/O (Memory Mapping)
 ******************************

 Input and output devices support this I/O method when the
 ``V4L2_CAP_STREAMING`` flag in the ``capabilities`` field of struct
 :c:type:`v4l2_capability` returned by the
 :ref:`VIDIOC_QUERYCAP` ioctl is set. There are two
 streaming methods, to determine if the memory mapping flavor is
 supported applications must call the :ref:`VIDIOC_REQBUFS` ioctl
 with the memory type set to ``V4L2_MEMORY_MMAP``.

 Streaming is an I/O method where only pointers to buffers are exchanged
 between application and driver, the data itself is not copied. Memory
 mapping is primarily intended to map buffers in device memory into the
 application's address space. Device memory can be for example the video
 memory on a graphics card with a video capture add-on. However, being
 the most efficient I/O method available for a long time, many other
 drivers support streaming as well, allocating buffers in DMA-able main
 memory.

 A driver can support many sets of buffers. Each set is identified by a
 unique buffer type value. The sets are independent and each set can hold
 a different type of data. To access different sets at the same time
 different file descriptors must be used. [#f1]_

 To allocate device buffers applications call the
 :ref:`VIDIOC_REQBUFS` ioctl with the desired number
 of buffers and buffer type, for example ``V4L2_BUF_TYPE_VIDEO_CAPTURE``.
 This ioctl can also be used to change the number of buffers or to free
 the allocated memory, provided none of the buffers are still mapped.

 Before applications can access the buffers they must map them into their
 address space with the :ref:`mmap() <func-mmap>` function. The
 location of the buffers in device memory can be determined with the
 :ref:`VIDIOC_QUERYBUF` ioctl. In the single-planar
 API case, the ``m.offset`` and ``length`` returned in a struct
 :c:type:`v4l2_buffer` are passed as sixth and second
 parameter to the :ref:`mmap() <func-mmap>` function. When using the
 multi-planar API, struct :c:type:`v4l2_buffer` contains an
 array of struct :c:type:`v4l2_plane` structures, each
 containing its own ``m.offset`` and ``length``. When using the
 multi-planar API, every plane of every buffer has to be mapped
 separately, so the number of calls to :ref:`mmap() <func-mmap>` should
 be equal to number of buffers times number of planes in each buffer. The
 offset and length values must not be modified. Remember, the buffers are
 allocated in physical memory, as opposed to virtual memory, which can be
 swapped out to disk. Applications should free the buffers as soon as
 possible with the :ref:`munmap() <func-munmap>` function.

 Example: Mapping buffers in the single-planar API
 =================================================

 .. code-block:: c

     struct v4l2_requestbuffers reqbuf;
     struct {
 	void *start;
 	size_t length;
     } *buffers;
     unsigned int i;

     memset(&reqbuf, 0, sizeof(reqbuf));
     reqbuf.type = V4L2_BUF_TYPE_VIDEO_CAPTURE;
     reqbuf.memory = V4L2_MEMORY_MMAP;
     reqbuf.count = 20;

     if (-1 == ioctl (fd, VIDIOC_REQBUFS, &reqbuf)) {
 	if (errno == EINVAL)
 	    printf("Video capturing or mmap-streaming is not supported\\n");
 	else
 	    perror("VIDIOC_REQBUFS");

 	exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
     }

     /* We want at least five buffers. */

     if (reqbuf.count < 5) {
 	/* You may need to free the buffers here. */
 	printf("Not enough buffer memory\\n");
 	exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
     }

     buffers = calloc(reqbuf.count, sizeof(*buffers));
     assert(buffers != NULL);

     for (i = 0; i < reqbuf.count; i++) {
 	struct v4l2_buffer buffer;

 	memset(&buffer, 0, sizeof(buffer));
 	buffer.type = reqbuf.type;
 	buffer.memory = V4L2_MEMORY_MMAP;
 	buffer.index = i;

 	if (-1 == ioctl (fd, VIDIOC_QUERYBUF, &buffer)) {
 	    perror("VIDIOC_QUERYBUF");
 	    exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
 	}

 	buffers[i].length = buffer.length; /* remember for munmap() */

 	buffers[i].start = mmap(NULL, buffer.length,
 		    PROT_READ | PROT_WRITE, /* recommended */
 		    MAP_SHARED,             /* recommended */
 		    fd, buffer.m.offset);

 	if (MAP_FAILED == buffers[i].start) {
 	    /* If you do not exit here you should unmap() and free()
 	       the buffers mapped so far. */
 	    perror("mmap");
 	    exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
 	}
     }

     /* Cleanup. */

     for (i = 0; i < reqbuf.count; i++)
 	munmap(buffers[i].start, buffers[i].length);


 Example: Mapping buffers in the multi-planar API
 ================================================

 .. code-block:: c

     struct v4l2_requestbuffers reqbuf;
     /* Our current format uses 3 planes per buffer */
     #define FMT_NUM_PLANES = 3

     struct {
 	void *start[FMT_NUM_PLANES];
 	size_t length[FMT_NUM_PLANES];
     } *buffers;
     unsigned int i, j;

     memset(&reqbuf, 0, sizeof(reqbuf));
     reqbuf.type = V4L2_BUF_TYPE_VIDEO_CAPTURE_MPLANE;
     reqbuf.memory = V4L2_MEMORY_MMAP;
     reqbuf.count = 20;

     if (ioctl(fd, VIDIOC_REQBUFS, &reqbuf) < 0) {
 	if (errno == EINVAL)
 	    printf("Video capturing or mmap-streaming is not supported\\n");
 	else
 	    perror("VIDIOC_REQBUFS");

 	exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
     }

     /* We want at least five buffers. */

     if (reqbuf.count < 5) {
 	/* You may need to free the buffers here. */
 	printf("Not enough buffer memory\\n");
 	exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
     }

     buffers = calloc(reqbuf.count, sizeof(*buffers));
     assert(buffers != NULL);

     for (i = 0; i < reqbuf.count; i++) {
 	struct v4l2_buffer buffer;
 	struct v4l2_plane planes[FMT_NUM_PLANES];

 	memset(&buffer, 0, sizeof(buffer));
 	buffer.type = reqbuf.type;
 	buffer.memory = V4L2_MEMORY_MMAP;
 	buffer.index = i;
 	/* length in struct v4l2_buffer in multi-planar API stores the size
 	 * of planes array. */
 	buffer.length = FMT_NUM_PLANES;
 	buffer.m.planes = planes;

 	if (ioctl(fd, VIDIOC_QUERYBUF, &buffer) < 0) {
 	    perror("VIDIOC_QUERYBUF");
 	    exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
 	}

 	/* Every plane has to be mapped separately */
 	for (j = 0; j < FMT_NUM_PLANES; j++) {
 	    buffers[i].length[j] = buffer.m.planes[j].length; /* remember for munmap() */

 	    buffers[i].start[j] = mmap(NULL, buffer.m.planes[j].length,
 		     PROT_READ | PROT_WRITE, /* recommended */
 		     MAP_SHARED,             /* recommended */
 		     fd, buffer.m.planes[j].m.offset);

 	    if (MAP_FAILED == buffers[i].start[j]) {
 		/* If you do not exit here you should unmap() and free()
 		   the buffers and planes mapped so far. */
 		perror("mmap");
 		exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
 	    }
 	}
     }

     /* Cleanup. */

     for (i = 0; i < reqbuf.count; i++)
 	for (j = 0; j < FMT_NUM_PLANES; j++)
 	    munmap(buffers[i].start[j], buffers[i].length[j]);

 Conceptually streaming drivers maintain two buffer queues, an incoming
 and an outgoing queue. They separate the synchronous capture or output
 operation locked to a video clock from the application which is subject
 to random disk or network delays and preemption by other processes,
 thereby reducing the probability of data loss. The queues are organized
 as FIFOs, buffers will be output in the order enqueued in the incoming
 FIFO, and were captured in the order dequeued from the outgoing FIFO.

 The driver may require a minimum number of buffers enqueued at all times
 to function, apart of this no limit exists on the number of buffers
 applications can enqueue in advance, or dequeue and process. They can
 also enqueue in a different order than buffers have been dequeued, and
 the driver can *fill* enqueued *empty* buffers in any order.  [#f2]_ The
 index number of a buffer (struct :c:type:`v4l2_buffer`
 ``index``) plays no role here, it only identifies the buffer.

 Initially all mapped buffers are in dequeued state, inaccessible by the
 driver. For capturing applications it is customary to first enqueue all
 mapped buffers, then to start capturing and enter the read loop. Here
 the application waits until a filled buffer can be dequeued, and
 re-enqueues the buffer when the data is no longer needed. Output
 applications fill and enqueue buffers, when enough buffers are stacked
 up the output is started with :ref:`VIDIOC_STREAMON <VIDIOC_STREAMON>`.
 In the write loop, when the application runs out of free buffers, it
 must wait until an empty buffer can be dequeued and reused.

 To enqueue and dequeue a buffer applications use the
 :ref:`VIVIOC_QBUF <VIDIOC_QBUF>` and :ref:`VIDIOC_DQBUF <VIDIOC_QBUF>`
 ioctl. The status of a buffer being mapped, enqueued, full or empty can
 be determined at any time using the :ref:`VIDIOC_QUERYBUF` ioctl. Two
 methods exist to suspend execution of the application until one or more
 buffers can be dequeued.  By default :ref:`VIDIOC_DQBUF <VIDIOC_QBUF>`
 blocks when no buffer is in the outgoing queue. When the ``O_NONBLOCK``
 flag was given to the :ref:`open() <func-open>` function,
 :ref:`VIDIOC_DQBUF <VIDIOC_QBUF>` returns immediately with an ``EAGAIN``
 error code when no buffer is available. The :ref:`select() <func-select>`
 or :ref:`poll() <func-poll>` functions are always available.

 To start and stop capturing or output applications call the
 :ref:`VIDIOC_STREAMON <VIDIOC_STREAMON>` and :ref:`VIDIOC_STREAMOFF
 <VIDIOC_STREAMON>` ioctl.

 .. note:::ref:`VIDIOC_STREAMOFF <VIDIOC_STREAMON>`
    removes all buffers from both queues as a side effect. Since there is
    no notion of doing anything "now" on a multitasking system, if an
    application needs to synchronize with another event it should examine
    the struct ::c:type:`v4l2_buffer` ``timestamp`` of captured
    or outputted buffers.

 Drivers implementing memory mapping I/O must support the
 :ref:`VIDIOC_REQBUFS <VIDIOC_REQBUFS>`, :ref:`VIDIOC_QUERYBUF
 <VIDIOC_QUERYBUF>`, :ref:`VIDIOC_QBUF <VIDIOC_QBUF>`, :ref:`VIDIOC_DQBUF
 <VIDIOC_QBUF>`, :ref:`VIDIOC_STREAMON <VIDIOC_STREAMON>`
 and :ref:`VIDIOC_STREAMOFF <VIDIOC_STREAMON>` ioctls, the :ref:`mmap()
 <func-mmap>`, :ref:`munmap() <func-munmap>`, :ref:`select()
 <func-select>` and :ref:`poll() <func-poll>` function. [#f3]_

 [capture example]

 .. [#f1]
    One could use one file descriptor and set the buffer type field
    accordingly when calling :ref:`VIDIOC_QBUF` etc.,
    but it makes the :ref:`select() <func-select>` function ambiguous. We also
    like the clean approach of one file descriptor per logical stream.
    Video overlay for example is also a logical stream, although the CPU
    is not needed for continuous operation.

 .. [#f2]
    Random enqueue order permits applications processing images out of
    order (such as video codecs) to return buffers earlier, reducing the
    probability of data loss. Random fill order allows drivers to reuse
    buffers on a LIFO-basis, taking advantage of caches holding
    scatter-gather lists and the like.

 .. [#f3]
    At the driver level :ref:`select() <func-select>` and :ref:`poll() <func-poll>` are
    the same, and :ref:`select() <func-select>` is too important to be optional.
    The rest should be evident.
	.. Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this
	.. document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License,
	.. Version 1.1 or any later version published by the Free Software
	.. Foundation, with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts
	.. and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included at
	.. Documentation/media/uapi/fdl-appendix.rst.
	..
	.. TODO: replace it to GFDL-1.1-or-later WITH no-invariant-sections

	.. _mmap:

	******************************
	Streaming I/O (Memory Mapping)
	******************************

	Input and output devices support this I/O method when the
	``V4L2_CAP_STREAMING`` flag in the ``capabilities`` field of struct
	:c:type:`v4l2_capability` returned by the
	:ref:`VIDIOC_QUERYCAP` ioctl is set. There are two
	streaming methods, to determine if the memory mapping flavor is
	supported applications must call the :ref:`VIDIOC_REQBUFS` ioctl
	with the memory type set to ``V4L2_MEMORY_MMAP``.

	Streaming is an I/O method where only pointers to buffers are exchanged
	between application and driver, the data itself is not copied. Memory
	mapping is primarily intended to map buffers in device memory into the
	application's address space. Device memory can be for example the video
	memory on a graphics card with a video capture add-on. However, being
	the most efficient I/O method available for a long time, many other
	drivers support streaming as well, allocating buffers in DMA-able main
	memory.

	A driver can support many sets of buffers. Each set is identified by a
	unique buffer type value. The sets are independent and each set can hold
	a different type of data. To access different sets at the same time
	different file descriptors must be used. [#f1]_

	To allocate device buffers applications call the
	:ref:`VIDIOC_REQBUFS` ioctl with the desired number
	of buffers and buffer type, for example ``V4L2_BUF_TYPE_VIDEO_CAPTURE``.
	This ioctl can also be used to change the number of buffers or to free
	the allocated memory, provided none of the buffers are still mapped.

	Before applications can access the buffers they must map them into their
	address space with the :ref:`mmap() <func-mmap>` function. The
	location of the buffers in device memory can be determined with the
	:ref:`VIDIOC_QUERYBUF` ioctl. In the single-planar
	API case, the ``m.offset`` and ``length`` returned in a struct
	:c:type:`v4l2_buffer` are passed as sixth and second
	parameter to the :ref:`mmap() <func-mmap>` function. When using the
	multi-planar API, struct :c:type:`v4l2_buffer` contains an
	array of struct :c:type:`v4l2_plane` structures, each
	containing its own ``m.offset`` and ``length``. When using the
	multi-planar API, every plane of every buffer has to be mapped
	separately, so the number of calls to :ref:`mmap() <func-mmap>` should
	be equal to number of buffers times number of planes in each buffer. The
	offset and length values must not be modified. Remember, the buffers are
	allocated in physical memory, as opposed to virtual memory, which can be
	swapped out to disk. Applications should free the buffers as soon as
	possible with the :ref:`munmap() <func-munmap>` function.

	Example: Mapping buffers in the single-planar API
	=================================================

	.. code-block:: c

	struct v4l2_requestbuffers reqbuf;
	struct {
	void *start;
	size_t length;
	} *buffers;
	unsigned int i;

	memset(&reqbuf, 0, sizeof(reqbuf));
	reqbuf.type = V4L2_BUF_TYPE_VIDEO_CAPTURE;
	reqbuf.memory = V4L2_MEMORY_MMAP;
	reqbuf.count = 20;

	if (-1 == ioctl (fd, VIDIOC_REQBUFS, &reqbuf)) {
	if (errno == EINVAL)
	printf("Video capturing or mmap-streaming is not supported\\n");
	else
	perror("VIDIOC_REQBUFS");

	exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
	}

	/* We want at least five buffers. */

	if (reqbuf.count < 5) {
	/* You may need to free the buffers here. */
	printf("Not enough buffer memory\\n");
	exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
	}

	buffers = calloc(reqbuf.count, sizeof(*buffers));
	assert(buffers != NULL);

	for (i = 0; i < reqbuf.count; i++) {
	struct v4l2_buffer buffer;

	memset(&buffer, 0, sizeof(buffer));
	buffer.type = reqbuf.type;
	buffer.memory = V4L2_MEMORY_MMAP;
	buffer.index = i;

	if (-1 == ioctl (fd, VIDIOC_QUERYBUF, &buffer)) {
	perror("VIDIOC_QUERYBUF");
	exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
	}

	buffers[i].length = buffer.length; /* remember for munmap() */

	buffers[i].start = mmap(NULL, buffer.length,
	PROT_READ \| PROT_WRITE, /* recommended */
	MAP_SHARED, /* recommended */
	fd, buffer.m.offset);

	if (MAP_FAILED == buffers[i].start) {
	/* If you do not exit here you should unmap() and free()
	the buffers mapped so far. */
	perror("mmap");
	exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
	}
	}

	/* Cleanup. */

	for (i = 0; i < reqbuf.count; i++)
	munmap(buffers[i].start, buffers[i].length);


	Example: Mapping buffers in the multi-planar API
	================================================

	.. code-block:: c

	struct v4l2_requestbuffers reqbuf;
	/* Our current format uses 3 planes per buffer */
	#define FMT_NUM_PLANES = 3

	struct {
	void *start[FMT_NUM_PLANES];
	size_t length[FMT_NUM_PLANES];
	} *buffers;
	unsigned int i, j;

	memset(&reqbuf, 0, sizeof(reqbuf));
	reqbuf.type = V4L2_BUF_TYPE_VIDEO_CAPTURE_MPLANE;
	reqbuf.memory = V4L2_MEMORY_MMAP;
	reqbuf.count = 20;

	if (ioctl(fd, VIDIOC_REQBUFS, &reqbuf) < 0) {
	if (errno == EINVAL)
	printf("Video capturing or mmap-streaming is not supported\\n");
	else
	perror("VIDIOC_REQBUFS");

	exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
	}

	/* We want at least five buffers. */

	if (reqbuf.count < 5) {
	/* You may need to free the buffers here. */
	printf("Not enough buffer memory\\n");
	exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
	}

	buffers = calloc(reqbuf.count, sizeof(*buffers));
	assert(buffers != NULL);

	for (i = 0; i < reqbuf.count; i++) {
	struct v4l2_buffer buffer;
	struct v4l2_plane planes[FMT_NUM_PLANES];

	memset(&buffer, 0, sizeof(buffer));
	buffer.type = reqbuf.type;
	buffer.memory = V4L2_MEMORY_MMAP;
	buffer.index = i;
	/* length in struct v4l2_buffer in multi-planar API stores the size
	* of planes array. */
	buffer.length = FMT_NUM_PLANES;
	buffer.m.planes = planes;

	if (ioctl(fd, VIDIOC_QUERYBUF, &buffer) < 0) {
	perror("VIDIOC_QUERYBUF");
	exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
	}

	/* Every plane has to be mapped separately */
	for (j = 0; j < FMT_NUM_PLANES; j++) {
	buffers[i].length[j] = buffer.m.planes[j].length; /* remember for munmap() */

	buffers[i].start[j] = mmap(NULL, buffer.m.planes[j].length,
	PROT_READ \| PROT_WRITE, /* recommended */
	MAP_SHARED, /* recommended */
	fd, buffer.m.planes[j].m.offset);

	if (MAP_FAILED == buffers[i].start[j]) {
	/* If you do not exit here you should unmap() and free()
	the buffers and planes mapped so far. */
	perror("mmap");
	exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
	}
	}
	}

	/* Cleanup. */

	for (i = 0; i < reqbuf.count; i++)
	for (j = 0; j < FMT_NUM_PLANES; j++)
	munmap(buffers[i].start[j], buffers[i].length[j]);

	Conceptually streaming drivers maintain two buffer queues, an incoming
	and an outgoing queue. They separate the synchronous capture or output
	operation locked to a video clock from the application which is subject
	to random disk or network delays and preemption by other processes,
	thereby reducing the probability of data loss. The queues are organized
	as FIFOs, buffers will be output in the order enqueued in the incoming
	FIFO, and were captured in the order dequeued from the outgoing FIFO.

	The driver may require a minimum number of buffers enqueued at all times
	to function, apart of this no limit exists on the number of buffers
	applications can enqueue in advance, or dequeue and process. They can
	also enqueue in a different order than buffers have been dequeued, and
	the driver can fill enqueued empty buffers in any order. [#f2]_ The
	index number of a buffer (struct :c:type:`v4l2_buffer`
	``index``) plays no role here, it only identifies the buffer.

	Initially all mapped buffers are in dequeued state, inaccessible by the
	driver. For capturing applications it is customary to first enqueue all
	mapped buffers, then to start capturing and enter the read loop. Here
	the application waits until a filled buffer can be dequeued, and
	re-enqueues the buffer when the data is no longer needed. Output
	applications fill and enqueue buffers, when enough buffers are stacked
	up the output is started with :ref:`VIDIOC_STREAMON <VIDIOC_STREAMON>`.
	In the write loop, when the application runs out of free buffers, it
	must wait until an empty buffer can be dequeued and reused.

	To enqueue and dequeue a buffer applications use the
	:ref:`VIVIOC_QBUF <VIDIOC_QBUF>` and :ref:`VIDIOC_DQBUF <VIDIOC_QBUF>`
	ioctl. The status of a buffer being mapped, enqueued, full or empty can
	be determined at any time using the :ref:`VIDIOC_QUERYBUF` ioctl. Two
	methods exist to suspend execution of the application until one or more
	buffers can be dequeued. By default :ref:`VIDIOC_DQBUF <VIDIOC_QBUF>`
	blocks when no buffer is in the outgoing queue. When the ``O_NONBLOCK``
	flag was given to the :ref:`open() <func-open>` function,
	:ref:`VIDIOC_DQBUF <VIDIOC_QBUF>` returns immediately with an ``EAGAIN``
	error code when no buffer is available. The :ref:`select() <func-select>`
	or :ref:`poll() <func-poll>` functions are always available.

	To start and stop capturing or output applications call the
	:ref:`VIDIOC_STREAMON <VIDIOC_STREAMON>` and :ref:`VIDIOC_STREAMOFF
	<VIDIOC_STREAMON>` ioctl.

	.. note:::ref:`VIDIOC_STREAMOFF <VIDIOC_STREAMON>`
	removes all buffers from both queues as a side effect. Since there is
	no notion of doing anything "now" on a multitasking system, if an
	application needs to synchronize with another event it should examine
	the struct ::c:type:`v4l2_buffer` ``timestamp`` of captured
	or outputted buffers.

	Drivers implementing memory mapping I/O must support the
	:ref:`VIDIOC_REQBUFS <VIDIOC_REQBUFS>`, :ref:`VIDIOC_QUERYBUF
	<VIDIOC_QUERYBUF>`, :ref:`VIDIOC_QBUF <VIDIOC_QBUF>`, :ref:`VIDIOC_DQBUF
	<VIDIOC_QBUF>`, :ref:`VIDIOC_STREAMON <VIDIOC_STREAMON>`
	and :ref:`VIDIOC_STREAMOFF <VIDIOC_STREAMON>` ioctls, the :ref:`mmap()
	<func-mmap>`, :ref:`munmap() <func-munmap>`, :ref:`select()
	<func-select>` and :ref:`poll() <func-poll>` function. [#f3]_

	[capture example]

	.. [#f1]
	One could use one file descriptor and set the buffer type field
	accordingly when calling :ref:`VIDIOC_QBUF` etc.,
	but it makes the :ref:`select() <func-select>` function ambiguous. We also
	like the clean approach of one file descriptor per logical stream.
	Video overlay for example is also a logical stream, although the CPU
	is not needed for continuous operation.

	.. [#f2]
	Random enqueue order permits applications processing images out of
	order (such as video codecs) to return buffers earlier, reducing the
	probability of data loss. Random fill order allows drivers to reuse
	buffers on a LIFO-basis, taking advantage of caches holding
	scatter-gather lists and the like.

	.. [#f3]
	At the driver level :ref:`select() <func-select>` and :ref:`poll() <func-poll>` are
	the same, and :ref:`select() <func-select>` is too important to be optional.
	The rest should be evident.